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Appendix B -- Islands of the Commonwealth Caribbean
THE COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS
The Commonwealth of Nations, more commonly known simply as the
Commonwealth, is a voluntary association of independent sovereign
states, including Britain and former British territories. Any
former British territory may seek Commonwealth membership, which is
granted by unanimous consent of the members. The Commonwealth also
includes associated states (see Glossary) of Britain, crown
colonies (see Glossary) of Britain, and dependencies of Australia
and New Zealand (see table A, this appendix).
Table A. Members of the Commonwealth of Nations, 1987
Independent Members
Antigua and Barbuda Malta
Australia Mauritius
The Bahamas Nauru
Bangladesh New Zealand
Barbados Nigeria
Belize Papua New Guinea
Botswana St. Christopher and Nevis
Britain St. Lucia
Brunei St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Canada Seychelles
Cyprus Sierra Leone
Dominica Singapore
Fiji Solomon Islands
The Gambia Sri Lanka
Ghana Swaziland
Grenada Tanzania
Guyana Tonga
India Trinidad and Tobago
Jamaica Tuvalu
Kenya Uganda
Kiribati Vanuatu
Lesotho Western Somoa
Malawi Zambia
Malaysia Zimbabwe
Maldives
Dependencies and Associated States of Britain
Anguilla Gibraltar
Bermuda Hong Kong
British Antarctic Territory Isle of Man
British Indian Ocean Territory Montserrat
British Virgin Islands Pitcairn Islands
Cayman Islands St. Helena
Channel Islands Turks and Caicos Islands
Falkland Islands
Dependencies of Australia
Australian Antarctic Territory Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Coral Sea Islands Territory Heard and McDonald Islands
Christmas Island Norfolk Island
Dependencies of New Zealand
Cook Islands Ross Dependency
Niue Tokelau
Source: Based on information from ""The Commonwealth,"" in
The Europa Year Book 1987, 1, London, 1987, 114.
In member nations in which the British monarch serves as the
head of state, she or he is represented by an appointed governor
general, who is independent of the British government. In other
Commonwealth nations, the monarch is represented by a high
commissioner who has the status of an ambassador. Member states
meet regularly to discuss issues, coordinate mutual economic and
technical assistance, and formulate proposals regarding
international economic affairs.
HISTORY
The Commonwealth of Nations is a twentieth-century creation,
but its origins go back to events in 1867. In that year the British
Parliament passed the British North American Act, creating the
self-governing Dominion of Canada. Canada was the first British
colony to gain self-government, and from that time on Britain began
to redefine its relationship with its colonies. Australia became a
dominion in 1900, New Zealand in 1907, and the Union of South
Africa in 1910.
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa
dispatched troops to aid in the British war effort in World War I.
They also participated in the postwar peace conference and in the
creation of the League of Nations. Such actions led Britain to
acknowledge these countries more as equals than as former colonies.
In 1926 the Imperial Conference of Commonwealth members adopted
the Balfour Formula on the status of the dominions. The conference
defined the dominions and Britain as ""autonomous communities with
the Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another
in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united
by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as
members of the British Commonwealth of Nations."" The formula
continued, ""Every self-governing member of the Empire is now the
master of its destiny. In fact, if not always in form, it is
subject to no compulsion whatsoever.""
The British government codified these basic principles of equal
status and free association in 1931 in the Statute of Westminster,
which has been characterized as the ""Magna Carta of the
Commonwealth."" The statute also recognized the full legislative
autonomy of the dominions and offered all former colonies the right
to secede from the Commonwealth.
The Ottawa Imperial Conference of 1932 added an economic
dimension to the Commonwealth by creating the Commonwealth
Preference, a system of preferential tariffs that applied to trade
between Britain and the other Commonwealth members. Under this
system, Britain imported goods from other Commonwealth countries
without imposing any tariffs. Commonwealth members were encouraged
to negotiate similar trade agreements with one another. For the
next decade and a half the Commonwealth in essence functioned as an
economic bloc vis-à-vis the rest of the world. However, following
World War II, as world and British trade policies were liberalized,
the bloc gradually disintegrated. The Commonwealth Preference was
finally terminated in 1977 as a condition of Britain's entrance
into the European Economic Community (EEC). Nevertheless,
Commonwealth nations have been linked to the EEC through the Lomé
Convention (see Glossary), which offers former colonies of EEC
members in Africa, the Pacific, and the Caribbean preferential
access to EEC markets and economic assistance. The Lomé Convention
is updated every five years.
A new Commonwealth gradually emerged after World War II,
reflecting the progress of decolonization and the needs of new
members. In the process, the Commonwealth became both more
decentralized and more concerned with economic and social needs. In
1947 Britain granted complete independence to India and Pakistan,
and in 1948 Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka) and Burma gained
independence. Burma did not join the Commonwealth, but the other
three became independent Commonwealth members. In deference to
India, a self-declared republic, the Commonwealth dropped the
requirement of formal allegiance to the crown. In 1949 the Irish
Republic seceded, although the citizens of the republic continue to
enjoy the rights and privileges of British subjects. In 1961 South
Africa left the Commonwealth because its racial policies differed
from the values of all other Commonwealth members.
During the 1960s and 1970s, a large number of British colonies
achieved independence and joined the expanded Commonwealth,
including most former colonies in sub-Saharan Africa, the
Caribbean, and the Pacific. Some former British colonies did not
join, however. Pakistan left in 1972, after Britain and other
members recognized Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan. (However, in
mid-1987 Pakistan petitioned to rejoin the Commonwealth, and action
on the request was regarded as likely to occur at the next Meeting
of Heads of Government of the Commonwealth.)
PRINCIPLES
Although the Statute of Westminster affirms the principles of
free association and equal status, the contemporary Commonwealth
has no written charter or formal treaty. Instead, its governing
features are found in a few basic procedures, its periodic
declarations of principle, and an organization designed for
consultations and mutual assistance. This framework is both
flexible and adaptable and is a major reason why the Commonwealth
has survived major changes in membership and member interests.
Two central procedures govern the Commonwealth--its process of
making decisions by consensus and its biennial Meeting of Heads of
Government of the Commonwealth. The latter are held in odd-numbered
years and in different cities and regions within the Commonwealth.
In alternate years senior officials hold policy-review meetings.
Finance ministers meet annually, and other meetings are held as
appropriate.
Over time, the Commonwealth has become more oriented toward its
less-developed members. Major declarations of principle reflect
this trend. The Declaration of Commonwealth Principles, adopted at
the 1971 Singapore meeting, affirmed the members' belief ""in the
liberty of the individual, in equal rights for all citizens
regardless of race, color, creed or political belief, and in their
inalienable right to participate by means of free and democratic
processes in framing the society in which they live."" The
declaration also opposed all forms of colonial domination and
racial oppression.
The 1977 meeting in Gleneagles, Scotland, issued the Agreement
on Apartheid in Sport, reaffirming opposition to apartheid but
allowing each member to decide whether or not to participate in
sporting events with South Africa. The 1979 conference in Lusaka,
Zambia, issued both an important framework for a peaceful
settlement of Southern Rhodesia's transition to an independent
Zimbabwe under black majority rule and a strong Commonwealth
declaration condemning racism. Members also adopted the 1981
Melborne Declaration on relations between the developed and
developing nations; the 1983 New Delhi Statement on Economic
Action; and the 1983 Goa Declaration on International Security.
The October 1985 meeting in Nassau, the Bahamas, passed
resolutions calling for cooperation in fighting international
terrorism and drug trafficking, bans on nuclear testing, and the
use of chemical weapons. As part of the Commonwealth's continuing
condemnation of South Africa's racial policies, it also established
the Commonwealth Group of Eminent Persons (COMGEP). COMGEP was
tasked to encourage dialogue to end apartheid in South Africa.
Despite a broad consensus among members condemning apartheid,
issues concerning South Africa have led to the most serious
divisions within the Commonwealth. In 1982 the Commonwealth Games
Federation held its first extraordinary meeting to discuss a tour
of New Zealand by South African rugby teams. In 1986 over half of
the member states pulled their teams out of the Commonwealth Games,
held that year in Britain, in protest over South African
participation. Conspicuously absent were the predominantly black
Caribbean and African states.
ORGANIZATION AND ACTIVITIES
The central organization for consultation and cooperation is
the Commonwealth Secretariat, established in 1965. The Secretariat,
located in London, is headed by a secretary general, elected by the
heads of government for a five-year term. The Secretariat organizes
conferences and meetings, coordinates a broad range of activities,
and disseminates information. Since World War II member heads of
state have attended the biennial Meetings of Heads of Government of
the Commonwealth. Also, meetings are held periodically on specific
matters concerning foreign affairs, defense, finance, and
international debt. For example, the national finance ministers
routinely meet immediately before the annual meetings of the World
Bank (see Glossary) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF--see
Glossary) to discuss international monetary and economic issues.
The Secretariat's departments deal with administration, economic
affairs, education, export market development, finance, food
production and rural development, information, international
affairs, legal matters, medical affairs, personnel, and youth.
Two permanent directorates are within the Secretariat, the
Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC) and the
Industrial Development Unit. The CFTC was established in April 1971
to provide technical assistance for economic and social development
in Commonwealth developing countries. The fund is financed by all
Commonwealth nations on a voluntary basis; the CFTC's governing
body includes representatives of all its contributors. The
Industrial Development Unit promotes the establishment and
modernization of industries in member countries.
The Commonwealth Secretariat is funded by member payments,
determined individually on the basis of per capita income. Britain
pays 30 percent of the Secretariat's budget.
In addition to the Secretariat, a number of Commonwealth
components are noteworthy. Government and private funds are sent to
less-developed members through the Commonwealth Development
Corporation. Specialized organizations include the Commonwealth
Agricultural Bureau, the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, the
Association of Commonwealth Universities, and various Commonwealth
groups for communications, health, the law, the professions, and
science and technology. The Commonwealth Games Federation, based in
London, has held games every four years since 1930. The
Commonwealth also maintains close links with other international
organizations, including the United Nations (UN). In October 1976
the UN General Assembly granted the Commonwealth official observer
status.
REGIONAL GROUPINGS
Aside from its general departments and specialized
organizations, the Commonwealth also has four ""regional
groupings."" One is the Colombo Plan, founded in 1951 and
headquartered in Colombo, Sri Lanka; it is designed to promote
economic and social development in Asia and the Pacific. Economic
assistance is provided to Commonwealth and non-Commonwealth
countries in the region by Australia, Britain, Canada, Japan, and
the United States. A related program, the Conference of Heads of
Government of Asian and Pacific Commonwealth Member States, began
in 1978 and exists to encourage cooperation for regional
development.
The other two regional groupings deal with the Caribbean: the
Caribbean Community and Common Market (Caricom--see Appendix C) and
the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS--see Glossary),
an associate institution of Caricom. Encompassing Antigua and
Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. Christopher and Nevis,
St. Lucia, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines, as well as the
British Virgin Islands as an associate member, the OECS aims at
coordinating member states' foreign policy and relations with
international institutions. It also has responsibility for the
Eastern Caribbean Currency Authority; the Eastern Caribbean Common
Market, established in 1968 and later an associate institution of
the Caricom; and the Eastern Caribbean States Supreme Court.
* * *
Information on the history and development of the Commonwealth of Nations can
be found in numerous sources. Giuseppe Schiavone's International Organizations
and Alan J. Day's Treaties and Alliances of the World are excellent
sources of information. H. Duncan Hall's Commonwealth: A History of the
British Commonwealth of Nations is particularly useful for historical background.
Guy Arnold's Economic Co-operation in the Commonwealth provides useful
insights into attempts at economic coordination among member states. (For further
information and complete citations, see Bibliography.)
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